Using pre-trained word embeddings
Author: fchollet
Date created: 2020/05/05
Last modified: 2020/05/05
Description: Text classification on the Newsgroup20 dataset using pre-trained GloVe word embeddings.
Setup
import numpy as np
import tensorflow as tf
from tensorflow import keras
Introduction
In this example, we show how to train a text classification model that uses pre-trained word embeddings.
We'll work with the Newsgroup20 dataset, a set of 20,000 message board messages belonging to 20 different topic categories.
For the pre-trained word embeddings, we'll use GloVe embeddings.
Download the Newsgroup20 data
data_path = keras.utils.get_file(
"news20.tar.gz",
"http://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs.cmu.edu/project/theo-20/www/data/news20.tar.gz",
untar=True,
)
Let's take a look at the data
import os
import pathlib
data_dir = pathlib.Path(data_path).parent / "20_newsgroup"
dirnames = os.listdir(data_dir)
print("Number of directories:", len(dirnames))
print("Directory names:", dirnames)
fnames = os.listdir(data_dir / "comp.graphics")
print("Number of files in comp.graphics:", len(fnames))
print("Some example filenames:", fnames[:5])
Number of directories: 20
Directory names: ['talk.politics.mideast', 'rec.autos', 'comp.sys.mac.hardware', 'alt.atheism', 'rec.sport.baseball', 'comp.os.ms-windows.misc', 'rec.sport.hockey', 'sci.crypt', 'sci.med', 'talk.politics.misc', 'rec.motorcycles', 'comp.windows.x', 'comp.graphics', 'comp.sys.ibm.pc.hardware', 'sci.electronics', 'talk.politics.guns', 'sci.space', 'soc.religion.christian', 'misc.forsale', 'talk.religion.misc']
Number of files in comp.graphics: 1000
Some example filenames: ['38254', '38402', '38630', '38865', '38891']
Here's a example of what one file contains:
print(open(data_dir / "comp.graphics" / "38987").read())
Newsgroups: comp.graphics
Path: cantaloupe.srv.cs.cmu.edu!das-news.harvard.edu!noc.near.net!howland.reston.ans.net!agate!dog.ee.lbl.gov!network.ucsd.edu!usc!rpi!nason110.its.rpi.edu!mabusj
From: mabusj@nason110.its.rpi.edu (Jasen M. Mabus)
Subject: Looking for Brain in CAD
Message-ID: <c285m+p@rpi.edu>
Nntp-Posting-Host: nason110.its.rpi.edu
Reply-To: mabusj@rpi.edu
Organization: Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY.
Date: Thu, 29 Apr 1993 23:27:20 GMT
Lines: 7
Jasen Mabus
RPI student
I am looking for a hman brain in any CAD (.dxf,.cad,.iges,.cgm,etc.) or picture (.gif,.jpg,.ras,etc.) format for an animation demonstration. If any has or knows of a location please reply by e-mail to mabusj@rpi.edu.
Thank you in advance,
Jasen Mabus
As you can see, there are header lines that are leaking the file's category, either
explicitly (the first line is literally the category name), or implicitly, e.g. via the
Organization filed. Let's get rid of the headers:
samples = []
labels = []
class_names = []
class_index = 0
for dirname in sorted(os.listdir(data_dir)):
class_names.append(dirname)
dirpath = data_dir / dirname
fnames = os.listdir(dirpath)
print("Processing %s, %d files found" % (dirname, len(fnames)))
for fname in fnames:
fpath = dirpath / fname
f = open(fpath, encoding="latin-1")
content = f.read()
lines = content.split("\n")
lines = lines[10:]
content = "\n".join(lines)
samples.append(content)
labels.append(class_index)
class_index += 1
print("Classes:", class_names)
print("Number of samples:", len(samples))
Processing alt.atheism, 1000 files found
Processing comp.graphics, 1000 files found
Processing comp.os.ms-windows.misc, 1000 files found
Processing comp.sys.ibm.pc.hardware, 1000 files found
Processing comp.sys.mac.hardware, 1000 files found
Processing comp.windows.x, 1000 files found
Processing misc.forsale, 1000 files found
Processing rec.autos, 1000 files found
Processing rec.motorcycles, 1000 files found
Processing rec.sport.baseball, 1000 files found
Processing rec.sport.hockey, 1000 files found
Processing sci.crypt, 1000 files found
Processing sci.electronics, 1000 files found
Processing sci.med, 1000 files found
Processing sci.space, 1000 files found
Processing soc.religion.christian, 997 files found
Processing talk.politics.guns, 1000 files found
Processing talk.politics.mideast, 1000 files found
Processing talk.politics.misc, 1000 files found
Processing talk.religion.misc, 1000 files found
Classes: ['alt.atheism', 'comp.graphics', 'comp.os.ms-windows.misc', 'comp.sys.ibm.pc.hardware', 'comp.sys.mac.hardware', 'comp.windows.x', 'misc.forsale', 'rec.autos', 'rec.motorcycles', 'rec.sport.baseball', 'rec.sport.hockey', 'sci.crypt', 'sci.electronics', 'sci.med', 'sci.space', 'soc.religion.christian', 'talk.politics.guns', 'talk.politics.mideast', 'talk.politics.misc', 'talk.religion.misc']
Number of samples: 19997
There's actually one category that doesn't have the expected number of files, but the difference is small enough that the problem remains a balanced classification problem.
Shuffle and split the data into training & validation sets
# Shuffle the data
seed = 1337
rng = np.random.RandomState(seed)
rng.shuffle(samples)
rng = np.random.RandomState(seed)
rng.shuffle(labels)
# Extract a training & validation split
validation_split = 0.2
num_validation_samples = int(validation_split * len(samples))
train_samples = samples[:-num_validation_samples]
val_samples = samples[-num_validation_samples:]
train_labels = labels[:-num_validation_samples]
val_labels = labels[-num_validation_samples:]
Create a vocabulary index
Let's use the TextVectorization to index the vocabulary found in the dataset.
Later, we'll use the same layer instance to vectorize the samples.
Our layer will only consider the top 20,000 words, and will truncate or pad sequences to be actually 200 tokens long.
from tensorflow.keras.layers import TextVectorization
vectorizer = TextVectorization(max_tokens=20000, output_sequence_length=200)
text_ds = tf.data.Dataset.from_tensor_slices(train_samples).batch(128)
vectorizer.adapt(text_ds)
You can retrieve the computed vocabulary used via vectorizer.get_vocabulary(). Let's
print the top 5 words:
vectorizer.get_vocabulary()[:5]
['', '[UNK]', 'the', 'to', 'of']
Let's vectorize a test sentence:
output = vectorizer([["the cat sat on the mat"]])
output.numpy()[0, :6]
array([ 2, 3697, 1686, 15, 2, 5943])
As you can see, "the" gets represented as "2". Why not 0, given that "the" was the first word in the vocabulary? That's because index 0 is reserved for padding and index 1 is reserved for "out of vocabulary" tokens.
Here's a dict mapping words to their indices:
voc = vectorizer.get_vocabulary()
word_index = dict(zip(voc, range(len(voc))))
As you can see, we obtain the same encoding as above for our test sentence:
test = ["the", "cat", "sat", "on", "the", "mat"]
[word_index[w] for w in test]
[2, 3697, 1686, 15, 2, 5943]
Load pre-trained word embeddings
Let's download pre-trained GloVe embeddings (a 822M zip file).
You'll need to run the following commands:
!wget http://nlp.stanford.edu/data/glove.6B.zip
!unzip -q glove.6B.zip
The archive contains text-encoded vectors of various sizes: 50-dimensional, 100-dimensional, 200-dimensional, 300-dimensional. We'll use the 100D ones.
Let's make a dict mapping words (strings) to their NumPy vector representation:
path_to_glove_file = os.path.join(
os.path.expanduser("~"), ".keras/datasets/glove.6B.100d.txt"
)
embeddings_index = {}
with open(path_to_glove_file) as f:
for line in f:
word, coefs = line.split(maxsplit=1)
coefs = np.fromstring(coefs, "f", sep=" ")
embeddings_index[word] = coefs
print("Found %s word vectors." % len(embeddings_index))
Found 400000 word vectors.
Now, let's prepare a corresponding embedding matrix that we can use in a Keras
Embedding layer. It's a simple NumPy matrix where entry at index i is the pre-trained
vector for the word of index i in our vectorizer's vocabulary.
num_tokens = len(voc) + 2
embedding_dim = 100
hits = 0
misses = 0
# Prepare embedding matrix
embedding_matrix = np.zeros((num_tokens, embedding_dim))
for word, i in word_index.items():
embedding_vector = embeddings_index.get(word)
if embedding_vector is not None:
# Words not found in embedding index will be all-zeros.
# This includes the representation for "padding" and "OOV"
embedding_matrix[i] = embedding_vector
hits += 1
else:
misses += 1
print("Converted %d words (%d misses)" % (hits, misses))
Converted 17999 words (2001 misses)
Next, we load the pre-trained word embeddings matrix into an Embedding layer.
Note that we set trainable=False so as to keep the embeddings fixed (we don't want to
update them during training).
from tensorflow.keras.layers import Embedding
embedding_layer = Embedding(
num_tokens,
embedding_dim,
embeddings_initializer=keras.initializers.Constant(embedding_matrix),
trainable=False,
)
Build the model
A simple 1D convnet with global max pooling and a classifier at the end.
from tensorflow.keras import layers
int_sequences_input = keras.Input(shape=(None,), dtype="int64")
embedded_sequences = embedding_layer(int_sequences_input)
x = layers.Conv1D(128, 5, activation="relu")(embedded_sequences)
x = layers.MaxPooling1D(5)(x)
x = layers.Conv1D(128, 5, activation="relu")(x)
x = layers.MaxPooling1D(5)(x)
x = layers.Conv1D(128, 5, activation="relu")(x)
x = layers.GlobalMaxPooling1D()(x)
x = layers.Dense(128, activation="relu")(x)
x = layers.Dropout(0.5)(x)
preds = layers.Dense(len(class_names), activation="softmax")(x)
model = keras.Model(int_sequences_input, preds)
model.summary()
Model: "model"
_________________________________________________________________
Layer (type) Output Shape Param #
=================================================================
input_1 (InputLayer) [(None, None)] 0
_________________________________________________________________
embedding (Embedding) (None, None, 100) 2000200
_________________________________________________________________
conv1d (Conv1D) (None, None, 128) 64128
_________________________________________________________________
max_pooling1d (MaxPooling1D) (None, None, 128) 0
_________________________________________________________________
conv1d_1 (Conv1D) (None, None, 128) 82048
_________________________________________________________________
max_pooling1d_1 (MaxPooling1 (None, None, 128) 0
_________________________________________________________________
conv1d_2 (Conv1D) (None, None, 128) 82048
_________________________________________________________________
global_max_pooling1d (Global (None, 128) 0
_________________________________________________________________
dense (Dense) (None, 128) 16512
_________________________________________________________________
dropout (Dropout) (None, 128) 0
_________________________________________________________________
dense_1 (Dense) (None, 20) 2580
=================================================================
Total params: 2,247,516
Trainable params: 247,316
Non-trainable params: 2,000,200
_________________________________________________________________
Train the model
First, convert our list-of-strings data to NumPy arrays of integer indices. The arrays are right-padded.
x_train = vectorizer(np.array([[s] for s in train_samples])).numpy()
x_val = vectorizer(np.array([[s] for s in val_samples])).numpy()
y_train = np.array(train_labels)
y_val = np.array(val_labels)
We use categorical crossentropy as our loss since we're doing softmax classification.
Moreover, we use sparse_categorical_crossentropy since our labels are integers.
model.compile(
loss="sparse_categorical_crossentropy", optimizer="rmsprop", metrics=["acc"]
)
model.fit(x_train, y_train, batch_size=128, epochs=20, validation_data=(x_val, y_val))
Epoch 1/20
125/125 [==============================] - 8s 57ms/step - loss: 2.8766 - acc: 0.0945 - val_loss: 2.0770 - val_acc: 0.2956
Epoch 2/20
125/125 [==============================] - 7s 58ms/step - loss: 2.0792 - acc: 0.2887 - val_loss: 1.6626 - val_acc: 0.4076
Epoch 3/20
125/125 [==============================] - 7s 60ms/step - loss: 1.5632 - acc: 0.4527 - val_loss: 1.3000 - val_acc: 0.5609
Epoch 4/20
125/125 [==============================] - 8s 60ms/step - loss: 1.2945 - acc: 0.5612 - val_loss: 1.2282 - val_acc: 0.5944
Epoch 5/20
125/125 [==============================] - 8s 61ms/step - loss: 1.1137 - acc: 0.6209 - val_loss: 1.0695 - val_acc: 0.6409
Epoch 6/20
125/125 [==============================] - 8s 61ms/step - loss: 0.9556 - acc: 0.6718 - val_loss: 1.1743 - val_acc: 0.6124
Epoch 7/20
125/125 [==============================] - 8s 61ms/step - loss: 0.8235 - acc: 0.7172 - val_loss: 1.0126 - val_acc: 0.6602
Epoch 8/20
125/125 [==============================] - 8s 65ms/step - loss: 0.7268 - acc: 0.7475 - val_loss: 1.0608 - val_acc: 0.6632
Epoch 9/20
125/125 [==============================] - 8s 63ms/step - loss: 0.6441 - acc: 0.7759 - val_loss: 1.0606 - val_acc: 0.6664
Epoch 10/20
125/125 [==============================] - 8s 63ms/step - loss: 0.5409 - acc: 0.8120 - val_loss: 1.0380 - val_acc: 0.6884
Epoch 11/20
125/125 [==============================] - 8s 65ms/step - loss: 0.4846 - acc: 0.8273 - val_loss: 1.1073 - val_acc: 0.6729
Epoch 12/20
125/125 [==============================] - 8s 62ms/step - loss: 0.4173 - acc: 0.8553 - val_loss: 1.1256 - val_acc: 0.6864
Epoch 13/20
125/125 [==============================] - 8s 63ms/step - loss: 0.3419 - acc: 0.8808 - val_loss: 1.1576 - val_acc: 0.6979
Epoch 14/20
125/125 [==============================] - 8s 68ms/step - loss: 0.2869 - acc: 0.9053 - val_loss: 1.1381 - val_acc: 0.6974
Epoch 15/20
125/125 [==============================] - 8s 67ms/step - loss: 0.2617 - acc: 0.9118 - val_loss: 1.3850 - val_acc: 0.6747
Epoch 16/20
125/125 [==============================] - 8s 67ms/step - loss: 0.2543 - acc: 0.9152 - val_loss: 1.3119 - val_acc: 0.6972
Epoch 17/20
125/125 [==============================] - 8s 66ms/step - loss: 0.2109 - acc: 0.9267 - val_loss: 1.3145 - val_acc: 0.6954
Epoch 18/20
125/125 [==============================] - 8s 64ms/step - loss: 0.1939 - acc: 0.9364 - val_loss: 1.4054 - val_acc: 0.7009
Epoch 19/20
125/125 [==============================] - 8s 67ms/step - loss: 0.1873 - acc: 0.9379 - val_loss: 1.7441 - val_acc: 0.6667
Epoch 20/20
125/125 [==============================] - 9s 70ms/step - loss: 0.1762 - acc: 0.9420 - val_loss: 1.5269 - val_acc: 0.6927
<tensorflow.python.keras.callbacks.History at 0x157134890>
Export an end-to-end model
Now, we may want to export a Model object that takes as input a string of arbitrary
length, rather than a sequence of indices. It would make the model much more portable,
since you wouldn't have to worry about the input preprocessing pipeline.
Our vectorizer is actually a Keras layer, so it's simple:
string_input = keras.Input(shape=(1,), dtype="string")
x = vectorizer(string_input)
preds = model(x)
end_to_end_model = keras.Model(string_input, preds)
probabilities = end_to_end_model.predict(
[["this message is about computer graphics and 3D modeling"]]
)
class_names[np.argmax(probabilities[0])]
'comp.graphics'